Recognizing 6 Propaganda Techniques In Politics: Have You Fall For It?

Disclaimer: This article was written as a requirement for AEI1001 (Introduction to International Relations) of the author, Elisa Shafiqah. The dissertation was awarded grade 'A*'. This article is published for the general public for educational purposes.

The citation of this article can be made as follow: Elisa Shafiqah. (2021) Recognizing 6 Propaganda Techniques In Politics: Have You Fall For It? Retrieved from https://elisashafiqah.wixsite.com/fromelisasdesk/post/recognizing-6-propaganda-techniques-in-politics-have-you-fall-for-it

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Introduction

Conveying one’s words is a vital fundamental aspect in understanding one’s intentions primarily if the context is regarding politics. One of the methods of presenting such words is done via propaganda. Political propaganda refers to disseminate message in manipulating certain matters which results to a change of behavior in viewing a certain political leader, party and policies [1]. It often associates itself with the terms of psychwar or brainwashing [2] as this method appeals to one’s basic understanding of persuasion – ethos, logos, kairos and pathos [3]. This essay will delve on three matters – (1) the characterization of six major political propaganda techniques, (2) the mechanism and examples of such techniques and (3) its effects to the political scene.

Propaganda Technique 1: Bandwagon

The term ‘bandwagon’ was firstly coined by Senator Sabin but was popularized by Theodore Roosevelt with the idiom ‘jump into the bandwagon’ usage in his 1899 letter [4] which both usage was utilized from a political spectrum. Accordingly, bandwagon denotes to appeal logically to the public in which it assumes that popular matters - certain political figures or policies will bring benefits, thus by supporting what the majority roots for will result in prosperity [5]. Henceforth, this technique persuades the society to join a certain movement and reinforce the idea of the public to be on the winning side - easy way to garner mass support. The mechanism of such technique can be made from an observational model as drawn out in Figure 1.

This technique is depicted as dangerous as it alludes to the general public, regardless of their beliefs, to pick a side and conform to the majority; to avoid criticism and isolation by others for being different. Nevertheless, this technique manifests itself often times during war period such as military conscription during World War I and II, and modern times such as elections[6] in which significantly impacts the voting behavior of voters. The usage of bandwagon technique on these propaganda are deciphered as noted from Figure 2 below. Hence, being skeptical of the purpose of the movement and questioning the reasoning to join the movement is a best way to counter the bandwagon-based political propaganda.

Propaganda Technique 2: Transfer

Transfer technique is derived from the practices made during the ancient world period in which the technique was used to associate Egyptian pharaohs as ‘the personification of a living god’ [7]. Thus, the definition of transfer can be referred to as the identification between an iconic symbolism towards the political institution [8]. Henceforth, this technique requires propagandists to affiliate their message with symbols that implies a desirable outlook - be it good or bad to a certain matter, to persuade the public via the ethos approach which is depicted in Figure 3. This indication will reflect the behavior of recipients to either respect or disrespect on a matter similarly as how they view the authority. This is harmful as the propaganda will stir such emotions unconsciously by virtue of validating the correlation of symbols to the merit of the politicians.

Nonetheless, this technique is utilized commonly during the war period to instill nationalism and modern age political campaign in which are depicted in-detail below in Figure 4 below. Consequently, this technique is implied-based but compelling in terms associating feelings in viewing such posters and images [9]. Considering how effective this technique is, one must note these 3 matters to prevent oneself from being manipulated by such propaganda, (1) the intention of the propaganda, (2) the credibility of the ideology being indoctrinated and (3) view the politician based on their contributions and merits.

Propaganda Technique 3: Name-calling

Originated from Aristotle’s understanding on fallacy in arguments [10], the name-calling technique refers to the act of associating words to describe a specified target. Henceforth, this technique appeals emotionally as public’s view will differ to the label given towards a party such as the terms ‘terrorist’ which brings a bad connotation whereas ‘activists’ are often viewed positively [11]. Such personification can be identified through the mechanism listed in Figure 5. In addition, political leaders opt for this technique as it is an easy attempt in successfully downgrading their opponents and diverge the attention of the public from the current crises. This technique distorts the view of the public towards the figures which may or may not truly portray the labels associated with.

Therefore, we can view this technique is widely used in the Cold War era especially to denote the movements made relating to proxy wars [12]. This can be comprehended further by deciphering some propaganda which utilize this technique and the effects it shows as mentioned in Figure 6. When confronted with such technique, it is ideal for us to differentiate our feelings towards the words used and the political figure itself to know the credibility of the stated figure.

Propaganda Technique 4: Card Stacking

Derived from Micheal de Montaigne’s Essay that highlights the role of cherry picking arguments and the act of magicians stacking a deck of cards which is favorable to his side, both matters serve as the layout for the formation of the card-stacking technique [13]. Hence, this technique appeals logically to the public by exaggerating the propagandists’ good outlook to benefit them tremendously which results in displaying the worst sides of their opponents. The mechanism of this technique is explained with reference to Figure 7. Henceforth, this technique functions to distort the public in terms of concision bias, coverage bias and confirmation bias which makes it even more difficult for the society to distinguish it as this technique uses true facts when playing with their statements.

Fundamentally, this technique is often opted during the war period to show the bad influence of the one side which is elaborated further in Figure 8. Nevertheless, card-stacking is one of the most effective techniques distinguished. Few counter-intuitive tools for us to counter such propaganda will be thorough fact-checking and research on the matter discussed to ensure that the ‘card stacked’ are not cherry-picked to appeal favorably in the eyes of the public.

Propaganda Technique 5: Glittering Generalities

Glittering generalities was firstly used in the political spectrum by Abraham Lincoln in his letter to Henry L. Pierce [14]. Thus, this technique appeals emotionally by using vague and positive undertone phrases in order to gain approval from the general public [15]. This word-game-like sentiment persuades the recipient to accept it thoughtlessly as mentioned in Figure 9. Inevitably, the phrases used are ambiguous which allows different views from the society to the definition of the term being accepted without the comprehension of the actual context being presented by the propagandists which shows how ideal this technique is to be used in political campaigns.

Essentially, this technique has a ‘sparkle’ effect on the surface without truly demonstrating the actual denotation being portrayed which is often viewed as the reverse version of name-calling technique. For instance, utilizing good adjectives to associate with the political figures such as in Figure 10. Henceforth, when countering this form of propaganda, one must analyze and notice the legitimate link between phrases used and the figures associated with, thus by segregating both compartments, will the message be still considered valid or not.

Propaganda Technique 6: Testimonial

Testimonial-based propaganda is an effective advertising tool in which credible authorities endorse the movement made by the propagandists. With Warren Harding becoming the first president to be endorsed by a celebrity in 1920 [16], this technique paved the way for propagandists to gain massive supporters from the supporters of such authority that endorsed their campaign. The mechanism of this technique can be seen in Figure 11. Henceforth, we can note that the reputation and value of the respected authority which endorses the campaign is exploited to make the propaganda appear favorable in the eyes of the public - authority bias will become more prominent and might indicate that the political figures does not win based on their contribution but rather from the votes of the authority’s fanbase.

Predominantly, this technique is used in supporting political campaigns and promoting manifesto and policies advocated by the propagandists which can be seen in Figure 12. Having said that, we need to identify 2 matters to counter this propaganda - (1) verify whether the opinions given by the authorities which act as the testimony is valid or merely as a tool for popularity and (2) recognize the agenda that the propagandists would like to portray without taking account the testimony provided.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this essay has reviewed three significant matters which are (1) the classification of the major techniques of political propaganda - origins, function and attributions, (2) the mechanism of carrying out these techniques and (3) the effects of utilizing these techniques towards the propagandists and recipients. As mentioned by Adolf Hitler, propaganda is a form of art that triggers the imagination of the public through psychological persuasion in various forms. Hence, various propaganda techniques can be utilized in one propaganda to effectively assert the propagandists’ intentions. Ideally, political propaganda is only the process of disseminating the manifesto to the general public. However, the application of it in the current age, sadly has now diverged itself to mislead the public from the truth and credit one side while shunning the other. Thus, we should always fact-check and analyze the propaganda given and the manifesto itself to avoid being manipulated by the propagandists in general.

Notes

[1] According to Laswell (1927), formulation of the theory of political propaganda made by him was in his view, that the connotation that represents such manipulation are done via manipulating significant symbols (gestures during speech, rise of cultures, utilization of words in a speech or usage of media advertisements such as posters). He then ruled out in his theory that any form of propaganda being utilized - vocally, in graphic, poetry, lyrics or words, is important to ensure the propaganda is disseminated effectively by appealing to the public psychologically. The existence of such matters is due to the fact that the political system is showing signs of tyranny which in return find itself as a method to dictate the democratic system in gaining support from the public instead in a subtle manner, rather than relying to threaten and having violence-based actions in having the same gains.

[2] The terminology of psychwar (refers to psychological warfare) and brainwashing are utilized in a similar context to political propaganda as it deemed as psychwar advocates confusion among the society during the time of war meanwhile brainwashing touch on indoctrinating an exhaustive and rigorous beliefs to the society in which to a certain extent, failure of distinguishing the truth and lies happens all the time (Smith, 2020).

[3] Ethos, logos, kairos and pathos are the elements outlined under the modes of persuasion in Aristotle’s Rhetoric. Persuasion using a credible authority is using the element of ethos, whereas element of logos appeals through logic. Element of kairos is used to persuade based on time and opportunity (usually requires the ones who are persuaded to carry out the call-to action) meanwhile persuading one into using feelings falls under the element of pathos.

[4] Senator of Minnesota, Dwight M. Sabin coined the idiom ‘get into the bandwagon’ in his speech in support of James G. Blaine in the Presidential Election. However, Blaine lost the election during the Electoral College. His speech was recorded by the Daily Globe whereas Theodore Roosevelt, then the 33rd Governor of New York at that time, wrote the idiom ‘jump on the bandwagon’ in a letter dated back in 1899 (Jump on the Bandwagon, 2014).

[5] This definition was derived from Institute of Propaganda Analysis (IPA) in 1937 which stimulates the thinking of recipients to enter a movement which is joined by the public to not remain isolated and oftentimes associated in relating it’s ties with nationalism, religionist, geographical and sexism sentiments (Sproule, 2001).

[6] In the context of election, the technique of bandwagon is often seen in terms of the political campaign itself and voting behavior of the society in a certain matter. This means voters most often than not will vote based on candidates or parties whom the voters are of the view, managed to gather the overwhelming majority support during the electorate. Not limited to general election, in-house (Chambers, Parliament or Congress) elections or votings are no exception to the same scheme. According to Schmitt-Beck (2015), this form of engagement to the general public may lead to an uproar which may alter the perception of the voters with their very own behavior such as switching votes from liberal to conservative.

[7] The Egyptian pharaohs established such connotation by associating the usage of Sphinx and pyramids which implies such big-scale architecture may only be done by God himself. This transfer propaganda allowed pharaohs to exhibit their prestigious and legitimate reign (Jowett & O'Donnell, 2006).

[8] As mentioned by Sproule (2001), establishing such correlation is important to stir the recipient’s emotion and allows them to be in favor with the propagandist as the symbolisms’ views associated are deemed credible in the eyes of the recipients.

[9] According to Smith (2020), such images and symbols act as a stimuli that are often implying a certain message. The general public often will associate a matter easily with a certain image or symbol as it is iconic and straight-forwardly showing the correlation to a certain authority. For instance, the symbol of Swastika is often associated with the Nazism regime in Germany under the administration of Adolf Hitler circa 1930s whereas the eagle imagery indicates peace, strength and wisdom. Commonly known and associated with the United States of America’s national emblem, such eagle imagery is to show the existence of liberty which portrays democracy and courage that it took to establish such a country.

[10] According to Tindale (2007), Aristotle argued on the difference between an argument and claims which are presumed to be ad hominem (a direct personal attack) in which he then studied the relationship of both matters in his work entitled Sophistical Refutations. He then ruled out that the relationship implies that attacking a person can be considered as a fallacy.

[11] Name-calling technique alludes to the general public to view a certain political figure or institution with prejudicial wordings which results in an unfavorable impression being formed that most often have sarcastic undertones. In addition, such deduction of words seen does not necessarily reflect the personality of the aforementioned political figure and institution (Sproule, 2001).

[12] The usage of name-calling propaganda technique is prominent during the proxy wars established in the Cold War period. For instance, the wording ‘terrorism’, ‘freedom fighter’ and ‘fascist’ are affiliated to the proxy war activities employed by North Korean and South Korean intelligences (Casey, 2008).

[13] Both derivations were essential in shaping the definition of card-stacking propaganda technique which implies the element of fraud when omitting such information. The terminology was officially coined by Alfred McClung Lee and Elizabeth Briant Lee from the IPA which they ruled out the principle of the technique is to omit facts to the point it paints either the worst narratives for one side or the amazing description for the other (Sproule, 2001).

[14] Abraham Lincoln used the terminology ‘glittering generalities’ to criticize Thomas Jefferson’s principle which have erred from the proper context of democracy which the United States of America would like to thrive at that moment of time i.e. the abolishment of slavery, which was mentioned in a letter to Henry L. Pierce dated back to 1859 (Lincoln, 1859).

[15] According to Sproule (2001), glittering generalities was refined by IPA in 1930s which refers to utilizing well-known and esteemed concept to support the message - often ranges from nationalism and democratic-based values by politicians.

[16] In the 1920 presidential election campaign, Harding had utilized the ‘front porch campaign’ which requires him to engage actively in campaigning in his constituency rather than the other parts of the country. Hence, he campaigned in front of his house in which his team consisted of his spouse and several campaign managers that aided him in managing engagement with the public. Thus, one of American famous actor and singer, Al Johnson sang and chanted ‘Harding You’re The Man For Us’ in front of Harding’s house which marks the first moment of the testimonial technique being made - providing correlation by utilizing quotation of a figure to the ideology that is being portrayed (Giaimo, 2015 & Sproule, 2001).

References

Casey, S. (2008). Selling the Korean War: propaganda, politics, and public opinion in the United States, , 1950-1953. New York: Oxford University Press.

Giaimo, C. (2015). Warren G. Harding Was The First Celebrity-Endorsed President. Atlas Obscura. Retrieved from https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/warren-g-harding-was-the-first-celebrityendorsed-president

Jowett, G. S., & O'Donnell, V. (2006). Propaganda and Persuasion (4th ed.). New Delhi: SAGE.

Jump on the Bandwagon. (2014). Early Sports and Pop Culture History Blog. Retrieved from https://esnpc.blogspot.com/2014/08/jump-on-bandwagon-history-and-etymology.html

Laswell, H. D. (1927). The Theory of Political Propaganda. The American Political Science Review, 21(3), 627-631. doi: 10.2307/1945515

Lincoln, A. (1859). Letter to Henry L. Pierce and others. Abraham Lincoln Online. Retrieved from http://www.abrahamlincolnonline.org/lincoln/speeches/pierce.htm

Schmitt-Beck, R. (2015). Bandwagon Effect. International Encyclopedia of Political Communication. doi: 10.1002/9781118541555.wbiepc015

Smith, B. L. (2020). Propaganda. Britannica Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/propaganda

Sproule, J. M. (2001). Authorship and Origins of the Seven Propaganda Devices: A Research Note. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 4(1), 135-143.

Tindale, C. W. (2007). Fallacies and Argument Appraisal. United States of America: Cambridge University Press.

The author of this article is Elisa Shafiqah. Elisa Shafiqah is the campaign coordinator at Malaysian Youth Diplomacy, researcher at the Malaysian Youth for Education Reform Movement and currently pursuing her first year in Bachelor of Arts (International and Strategic Studies) in the University of Malaya. The views expressed here are entirely the author’s own opinions and it does not purport to reflect the views of any institution. Should you have any inquiries, do email her at elisashafiqahshahrilnizam@gmail.com.